Opened burial mounds all over the steppe: whose were they?
Editorial contextOn the way home Unkovsky saw many burial mounds dug open 'like cellars' across the steppe. The Dzungar envoy Darzha had heard that Russians dug them for golden stirrups and cups, and said the dead were of his own people. Unkovsky objected that by their religion Kalmyks burn their dead or give them to dogs and birds, and never bury them with gold, and suggested that perhaps some of 'our peoples' had lived there in ancient times; Darzha still held that they were his. An early recorded argument about who built the kurgans.
Travelling across the steppe we saw a great many dug-open mounds … like opened cellars, visible all over the steppe. … He was asked: what people were buried here? He said: supposedly of their own people. To this he was told that by their faith they burn their dead and throw them in the water, give them to dogs and birds for food, and do not bury them with gold or with any wealth at all.
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Original wording
Ѣдучи въ пути степью, видѣли множество разрытыхъ бугровъ … яко погребы раскрытые, по всей степи видны. … Спрошено у него: Какіе люди тутъ погребены были? Оной сказалъ, будто ихъ народу. На сіе сказано ему, что по ихъ вѣрѣ умершихъ людей жгутъ и въ воду бросаютъ, собакамъ и птицамъ на кормъ отдаютъ, а съ золотомъ и ни съ какимъ богатствомъ не погребаютъ.
About Dzungars (Oirats); unknown ancient builders
Keep in mind
Unkovsky saw the robbed mounds; his account of Kalmyk funeral custom is a generalisation made to win an argument.
Horned masked dancers and stones thrown at China
Editorial contextBefore the New Year the lamas performed a masked dance (the Buddhist tsam) before a great tent. Unkovsky describes masked dancers wearing caps with horns, one like a cow's, one like a wild goat's, cymbals, drums and long brass trumpets, and an offering blown up in a fire. At the end the whole crowd, the ruler among them, marched east and hurled stones, sticks and earth toward the east with a great shout, 'as if for victory over the Chinese', their enemy at the time.
Two men came out with covered faces, with two horns each on their caps; one had cow's horns, the other horns like a wild goat's … and all the people, seizing whatever came to hand (a stone or a stick or earth), threw it toward the east with a great shout, as if for victory over the Chinese; and the Kontaisha himself walked with them.
Working translation
Original wording
Вышли два человѣка, закрытыя лица, на шапкахъ по два рога было; у одного коровей, у другого яко у дикой козы … и весь народъ, ухватя что попало въ руки (камень или палку или земли), съ великимъ крикомъ бросали на востокъ, будто бы въ побѣду на Китайцевъ; притомъ и самъ Контайша шелъ.
About Dzungars (Oirats), Buddhist lamas
Keep in mind
The meaning of the stone-throwing ('as if for victory over the Chinese') is Unkovsky's reading.
A Swedish prisoner casts cannon for the Dzungar ruler
Editorial contextA Russian soldier freed from Dzungar captivity told Unkovsky that a foreign sub-lieutenant, Renat, captured with the Russians in 1716, had cast seven bronze cannon and three mortars for the ruler, and that other captive officers had taught the Dzungars to make cloth and needles; one was said to be making velvet in Yarkand. It shows a steppe state importing skills through its prisoners.
he heard that the foreigner, sub-lieutenant of artillery Renat, who was taken prisoner with them at Koryakov, cast for the Kontaisha seven bronze cannon and three mortars. And at the same Kontaisha's Urga, Lieutenant Debesh and other officers taught them to make cloth and needles. And now it is said that this Debesh is making velvet in Erken (Yarkand).
Working translation
Original wording
слышалъ, что иноземецъ штыкъ-юнкеръ Ренотъ, которой взятъ съ ними въ полонъ съ Корякова, вылилъ Контайшѣ семь пушекъ мѣдныхъ, три мортиры. Да у него жъ Контайши въ Ургѣ поручикъ Дебешъ и другіе офицеры научили дѣлать суконъ, иголъ. А нынѣ слышно, что оной Дебешъ дѣлаетъ въ Эркени бархатъ.
About Dzungars (Oirats); Swedish and Russian captives
Keep in mind
Hearsay from a former captive. Renat is the Swedish officer Johan Gustaf Renat, later known for his maps of Dzungaria (a modern identification).
Wrestlers in rolled-up trousers
Editorial contextInvited to watch wrestling, Unkovsky sat near the ruler under awnings on tall poles. He describes bouts between the ruler's side and his son Galdan Tseren's side, with bets and judges who wrote down the results. The wrestlers came out bare but for trousers rolled above the knee, raised their arms, glared to look fearsome, and gripped each other by the trousers. A bout only counted when a man was thrown flat on both shoulders.
And so from both sides the wrestlers come out naked, only in trousers rolled up well above the knee. And when they are about four sazhens from each other they raise their arms, and, rolling their eyes (to make themselves look fearsome), slowly close in; and when they meet they bend forward and seize each other by the trousers
Working translation
Original wording
И тако съ обѣихъ сторонъ выходятъ борцы нагіе, токмо въ штанахъ, которыя подобраны выше гораздо колѣнъ. И не дошедъ единъ отъ другого сажени за четыре, подымутъ руки вверхъ, и искося глаза (являя себя страшливыми), потихоньку сходятся; и какъ сойдутся, и принаклонясь, схватываются за штаны
About Dzungars (Oirats)
No bread, only meat and fermented milk; the Tatars will drink it
Editorial contextInstead of flour the Dzungars sent the embassy chigan, fermented milk, saying they had no grain and ate only meat and drank chigan. Unkovsky answered that some of his people would drink it and some would not, since a Christian fast was about to begin: during it nobody but the Tatars would drink chigan. The 'Tatars' here are the Muslim service Tatars of Tobolsk and Tara travelling with him.
and instead of flour and groats they brought chigan, declaring that they have no bread now, and their people are not eating now, only meat, and drink chigan. They were told that some of our people will drink chigan and some will not; and especially since from tomorrow our fast begins … and nobody except the Tatars will drink chigan
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Original wording
а вмѣсто муки и крупъ привезли чигану, объявляя, что у нихъ нынѣ хлѣба нѣтъ, и люди ихъ нынѣ не ѣдятъ, токмо мясо, и пьютъ чиганы. Сказано имъ, что наши люди иные будутъ пить чиганъ, а иные не будутъ; а особливо съ завтрешнего числа начнется у насъ постъ … и никто, кромѣ Татаръ, чигану пить не будутъ
About Dzungars (Oirats); Siberian service Tatars in the Russian suite
Verbal courts and savage punishments
Editorial contextIn his closing description of the Dzungar state Unkovsky says the ruler took no great decision without his council of zaisangs, and that the court (zargo) of ten or more zaisangs judged cases orally, not in writing. Capital sentences were carried out by flogging to death or by tying limbs to horses' tails, though he adds that such executions were rare.
They decide cases not in writing but orally. If they condemn someone to death for serious matters, some they kneel down and flog to death with whips; others they tie by the hands and feet to horses' tails, and the horses, running, tear off those people's arms and legs. However, such executions happen rarely among them.
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Original wording
Суды рѣшатъ не письменно, но на словахъ. Ежели за важныя дѣла кого на смерть осудятъ: иныхъ, поставя на колѣнки, плетьми до смерти убиваютъ; иныхъ же, привязавъ къ лошадинымъ хвостамъ руки и ноги, и тако оныя лошади на бѣгу тѣмъ людямъ руки и ноги отрываютъ. Однакожъ, рѣдко у нихъ оныя казни случаются.
About Dzungars (Oirats)
Keep in mind
Part of a general summary built from inquiry, not an execution he witnessed.
Nomads turning farmers on the khan's orders
Editorial contextUnkovsky notes that thirty years earlier the Kalmyks had little grain because they did not know how to plough, but now fields were multiplying: not only their subject Bukharans (settled Turkestani farmers) but many Kalmyks had taken up farming by the ruler's order. He lists wheat, millet, barley and rice, and melons, apricots, grapes and pomegranates from Yarkand and the other towns under Dzungar rule.
Some thirty years before this they had little grain, because they did not know how to plough. Now their fields multiply by the hour, and not only the subject Bukharans sow grain, but many Kalmyks are taking up ploughing, because there is an order from the Kontaisha about it.
Working translation
Original wording
Предъ симъ временемъ лѣтъ за тридцать хлѣба мало имѣли, понеже пахать не умѣли. Нынѣ пашни у нихъ отъ часу умножаются, и не токмо подданные Бухарцы хлѣбъ сѣютъ, но и Калмыки многіе за пашню пріемлются, понеже о томъ Контайши приказъ есть.
About Dzungars (Oirats) and subject Bukharans
Keep in mind
The same page opens with Unkovsky's prejudiced remark that Kalmyks learn cunning and theft from childhood.
The peoples of the Dzungar realm, none of them called Tatars
Editorial contextUnkovsky lists the peoples under the Kontaisha: the Dzungars proper ('of the left hand'), Kyrgyz, Uriankhai, Telengits and others, the town-dwelling Bukharans of Yarkand, the Buruts (Kyrgyz) of lake Issyk-Kul and the Barabinians, who paid tribute to both Russia and the Dzungars. No one here is called a Tatar; the same land appears on Western maps of the time as part of 'Great Tartary'.
Under the Kontaisha's rule are various peoples, namely: his own people, called the Dzungars (or 'of the left hand'), the Kyrgyz, Uriankhai, Telengits, Mingats, Khoits, Khoshuts, the Bukharans of Erken (Yarkand), who live in towns, though the better sort roam with him, the Buruts, who roam around lake Tuskel (Issyk-Kul), and the Barabinians, who pay tribute to His Imperial Majesty and to the Kontaisha.
Working translation
Original wording
Подъ его контайшинымъ владѣніемъ обрѣтаются разные народы, а именно: его настоящей народъ, имянуемой Зюнгоры (или лѣвой руки), Киргизы, Урянхайцы, Теленгуты, Мингаты, Каюты, Кошеуты, Эркенскіе Бухарцы (въ городахъ живущіе, а лучше при немъ кочуютъ), Буруты, которые около озера Тускелъ кочуютъ, Барабинцы, которые ясакъ платятъ въ сторону Императорского Величества и Контайшѣ.
About Dzungars and their subject peoples
Keep in mind
The identifications of Kayuty as Khoits and Tuskel as Issyk-Kul are editorial glosses by this reader, not Unkovsky's.
A Russian envoy guesses that ancient Russians lay under the mounds
Editorial contextContinuing the argument about the robbed mounds, Unkovsky told Darzha that in pagan times, over seven hundred years earlier, Russians had buried their dead with war-gear under great earth mounds, so perhaps some of 'our peoples' had once lived here. He blamed the digging on Kalmyks, Ostyaks or Kazakhs, and said Russian law punished grave-robbers with death. Darzha, doubtful, replied that his people had only had writing for a hundred years and could not know. A striking early example of a claim about who once lived on the steppe, made on the spot and without evidence.
Among us people are buried with their wealth, and especially in ancient times, before the Christian law, more than seven hundred years ago, they were buried with all their war-gear and great mounds of earth were heaped over them; and it may be that in ancient times some of our peoples lived in these places … [Darzha] said that among them writing began only a hundred years ago.
Working translation
Original wording
У насъ погребаются люди съ богатствомъ, а паче что въ древнія времена еще до христіанского закона, лѣтъ слишкомъ за семь сотъ погребалися со всѣмъ военнымъ уборствомъ, и насыпали на нихъ великіе бугры земли, и можетъ быть, что въ древнія времена нѣкоторые изъ нашихъ народовъ въ сихъ мѣстахъ жили … сказалъ, что у насъ де только сто лѣтъ какъ грамота началась
About Dzungars (Oirats); Russians; Kazakhs; Ostyaks
Keep in mind
Unkovsky offers this as a guess in a diplomatic sparring match, not as knowledge; he himself calls it 'perhaps'.